Operations Management Of Customs Molds Commerce Essay

Operations Management Of Customs Molds Commerce Essay Custom Molds, Inc., manufactures custom-designed molds for plastic parts and produces custom-made plastic connectors for the electronics industry. Located in Tucson, Arizona, Custom Molds was founded by the father and son team of Tom and Mason Miller in 1975. Tom Miller, a mechanical engineer, had more than 20 years of experience in the connector industry with AMP, Inc., a large multinational producer of electronic connectors. Mason Miller had graduated from the University of Arizona in 1974 with joint degrees in chemistry and chemical engineering. The company was originally formed to provide manufacturers of electronic connectors with a source of high-quality, custom-designed molds for producing plastic parts. The market consisted mainly of the product design and development divisions of those manufacturers. Custom Molds worked closely with each customer to design and develop molds to be used in the customers product development processes. Thus, virtually every mold had to meet exacting standards and was somewhat unique. Orders for multiple molds would arrive when customers moved from the design and pilot-run stage of development to large-scale production of newly designed parts. As the years went by, Custom Molds reputation grew as a designer and fabricator of precision molds. Building on this reputation, the Millers decided to expand into the limited manufacture of plastic parts. Ingredient-mixing facilities and injection-molding equipment were added, and by the mid-1980s Custom Molds developed its reputation to include being a supplier of high-quality plastic parts. Because of limited capacity, the company concentrated its sales efforts on supplying parts that were used in limited quantities for research and development efforts and in pre-production pilot runs. Figure 3.13 Plant Layout PRODUCTION PROCESSES By 1985, operations at Custom Molds involved two distinct processes: one for fabricating molds and one for producing plastic parts. Although different, in many instances these two processes were linked, as when a customer would have Custom Molds both fabricate a mold and produce the necessary parts to support the customers RD efforts. All fabrication and production operations were housed in a single facility. The layout was characteristic of a typical job shop, with like processes and similar equipment grouped in various places in the plant. Figure 3.13 shows a schematic of the plant floor. Multiple pieces of various/ types of high-precision machinery, including milling, turning, cutting, and drilling equipment, were located in the mold-fabrication area. Fabricating molds is a skill-oriented, craftsman-driven process. When an order is received, a design team, comprising a design engineer and one of 13 master machinists, reviews the design specifications. Working closely with the customer, the team establishes the final specifications for the mold and gives them to the master machinist for fabrication. It is always the same machinist who was assigned to the design team. At the same time, the purchasing department is given a copy of the design specifications, from which it orders the appropriate raw materials and special tooling. The time needed to receive the ordered materials is usually three to four weeks. When the materials are received for a particular mold, the plant master scheduler reviews the workload of the assigned master machinist and schedules the mold for fabrication. Fabricating a mold takes from two to four weeks, depending on the amount of work the machinist already has scheduled. The fabrication process itself takes only three to five days. Upon completion, the mold is sent to the testing and inspection area, where it is used to produce a small number of parts on one of the injection molding machines. If the parts meet the design specifications established by the design team, the mold is passed on to be cleaned and polished. It is then packed and shipped to the customer. One day is spent inspecting and testing the mold and a second day cleaning, polishing, packing, and shipping it to the customer. If the parts made by the mold do not meet design specifications, the mold is returned to the master machinist for retooling and the process starts over. Currently, Custom Molds has a published lead time of nine weeks for delivery of custom-fabricated molds. The manufacturing process for plastic parts is somewhat different from that for mold fabrication. An order for parts may be received in conjunction with an order for a mold to be fabricated. ln instances where Custom Molds has previously fabricated the mold and maintains it in inventory, an order may be just for parts. If the mold is already available, the order is reviewed by a design engineer, who verifies the part and raw material specifications. If the design engineer has any questions concerning the specifications, the customer is contacted and any revisions to specifications are mutually worked out and agreed upon. Upon acceptance of the part and raw material specifications, raw material orders are placed and production is scheduled for the order. Chemicals and compounds that support plastic-parts manufacturing are typically ordered and received within one week. Upon receipt, the com- pounds are first dry-mixed and blended to achieve the correct composition. Then the mixture is wet-mixed to the desired consistency (called slurry) for injection into molding machines. When ready, the slurry is transferred to the injection molding area by an overhead pipeline and deposited in holding tanks adjacent to the injection machines. The entire mixing process takes only one day. When the slurry is staged and ready, the proper molds are secured from inventory or from the clean and polish operation if new molds were fabricated for the order and the parts are manufactured. Although different parts require different temperature and pressure settings, the time to produce a part is relatively constant. Custom Molds has the capacity to produce 5,000 parts per day in the injection-molding department; historically, however, the lead time for handling orders in this department has averaged one week. Upon completion of molding, the parts are taken to the cut and trim operation, where they are disconnected and leftover flashing is removed. After being inspected, the parts may be taken to assembly or transferred to the packing and shipping area for shipment to the customer. If assembly of the final parts is not required, the parts can be on their way to the customer two days after being molded. Sometimes the final product requires some assembly. Typically, this entails attaching metal leads to plastic connectors. If assembly is necessary, an additional three days is needed before the order can be shipped. Custom Molds is currently quoting a three-week lead time for parts not requiring fabricated molds. THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT ln early 1991, Tom and Mason Miller began to realize that the electronics industry they supplied, along with their own business, was changing. Electronics manufacturers had traditionally used vertical integration into component-parts manufacturing to reduce costs and ensure a timely supply of parts. By the late 1980s, this trend had changed. Manufacturers were developing strategic partnerships with parts suppliers to ensure the timely delivery of high-quality, cost-effective parts. This approach allowed funds to be diverted to other uses that could provide a larger return on investment. The impact on Custom Molds could be seen in sales figures over the past three years. The sales mix was changing. Although the number of orders per year for mold fabrication remained virtually constant, orders for multiple, molds were declining, as shown in the following table: Number of orders Order size Molds 1988 Molds 1989 Molds 1990 1 80 74 72 2 60 70 75 3 40 51 55 4 5 6 5 5 3 5 4 6 4 8 5 7 2 0 1 8 10 6 4 9 11 8 5 10 15 10 5 TOTAL ORDERS 230 238 231 The reverse was true for plastic parts, for which the number of orders per year had declined but for which the order sizes were becoming larger, as illustrated in the following table: Number of orders Order size Parts 1988 Parts 1989 Parts 1990 50 100 93 70 100 70 72 65 150 40 30 35 200 36 34 38 250 25 27 25 500 10 12 14 750 1 3 5 1000 2 2 8 3000 1 4 9 5000 1 3 8 TOTAL ORDERS 286 280 277 During this same period Custom Molds began having delivery problems. Customers were complaining that parts orders were taking four to five weeks instead of the stated three weeks and that the delays were disrupting production schedules. When asked about the situation, the master scheduler said that determining when a particular order could be promised for delivery was very difficult. Bottlenecks were occurring during the production process, but where or when they would occur could not be predicted. They always seemed to be moving from one operation to another. Tom Miller thought that he had excess labor capacity in the mold-fabrication area. So, to help push through those orders that were behind schedule, he assigned one of the master machinists the job of identifying and expediting those late orders. However, that tactic did not seem to help much. Complaints about late deliveries were still being received. To add to the problems, two orders had been returned recently because of the number of defective parts. The Millers knew that something had to be done. The question was What? Questions 1. What are the major issues facing Tom and Mason Miller? 2. Identify the individual processes on a flow diagram. What are the competitive priorities for these processes and the changing nature of the industry? 3. What alternatives might the Millers pursue? What key factors should they consider as they evaluate these alternatives? Source: Krajewski Ritzman, Operations Management, 6th Edition Summary Custom Molds was founded by a father and son team in 1987 to provide high quality, custom-designed molds for manufacturers of electronic connectors, but later expanded into the production of plastic parts for the industry. In recent years, the changing environment of the electronics industry had a profound impact on the way Custom Molds conducts its business and manufacturing processes. The changing sales mix, coupled with delivery and quality problems, prompted the company to revise its business strategies to address the following issues: 1) Changing trends in the electronics manufacturing industry that caused changes in customer order needs 2) Unpredictable bottlenecks in the production environment 3) Quality issues resulting in defective parts 4) Delivery times 1. Major Issues Question 1 What are the major issues facing Tom and Mason Miller? 1.1 Changing Trends There were several issues facing the owners of the company. Firstly, the major issue is the electronics industry was changing in that manufacturers were developing strategic partnerships that allowed the delivery of high quality and cost effective parts. Also, the nature of their business had shifted in that the mix of sales had changed with the number of multiple orders declining and the demand for plastic parts increasing (Krajewski Ritzman, 2007). In comparing with mold fabrication and plastic part (see appendix), it is clear that plastic parts has a higher potential sales than mold fabrication on a larger order size. This will allow Tom and Mason to think whether it is best to eliminate mold fabrication and focus on more towards plastic parts because of the changing environment. 1.2 Production Process Issues faced by Custom Molds Inc.: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The delivery times on parts order were taking four to five weeks instead of the stated three weeks. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Number of defective products was on the rise. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Bottlenecks increased in the production process. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Changing strategies within their clients business needs changed order needs in an unexpected way. There are two distinct processes taking place in the same facility and each process serves different customer needs. Below is the analysis of each the processes (Mold Fabrication and Parts Manufacturing) along with recommendations for the same. 1. MOLD FABRICATION PROCESS: Mold fabrication is the core business of Custom Mold Inc., and the recommended process is shown in Exhibit 1. Mold Fabrication requires flexibility and quality; hence concept of Job Shop must be applied to streamline the process. Following are the Recommendations to do the same. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ LAYOUT: Similar equipment or function must be grouped together and the layout of the equipment must be designed so as to minimize the material handling, cost and work in process inventories. Digital numerically controlled equipment should be used as it gives flexibility to change set-ups on the various machines quickly. This will allow Custom Mold Inc. to compete on quality, speed, customization and new product introduction. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ STANDARDIZATION: To identify and eliminate bottlenecks, Custom Mold Inc must standardize all processes. This means that every task, every job, every event must be approached the same way each time it occurs. This includes a standard way of engineering, workholding, manufacturing and shipping. With standard processes, it will become easier to identify which areas are profitable and which are not. This will enable Custom Molds Inc to look t areas, which have the most variables and make them less variables. For example Fixturing / Workinholding is one of the biggest variables in every shop. In a year that has 8,760 hours, we spend 2,200 to provide high quality, custom-designed molds for manufacturers of electronic connectors, but later expanded into the production of plastic parts for the industry. In recent years, the changing environment of the electronics industry had a profound impact on the way Custom Molds conducts its business and manufacturing processes. The changing sales mix, coupled with delivery and quality problems, prompted the company to revise its business strategies to address to following issues: Custom Molds, Inc. was founded by a father and son team in 1987 to provide high à Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ° to provide quality, custom-designed molds for manufacturers of electronic connectors, but later expanded into the production of plastic parts for the industry. In recent years, the changing environment of the electronics industry had a profound impact on the way Custom Molds conducts its business and manufacturing processes. The changing sales mix, coupled with delivery and quality problems, prompted the company to revise its business strategies to address to following issues: 1) Changing trends in the electronics manufacturing industry that caused changes in clients order needs 2) Unpredictable bottlenecks in the production environment 3) Quality issues resulting in defective parts 4) Delivery times promised to clients were not met Analysis 1) Process Inefficiencies Some of the issues presented above resulted from inefficiencies in the two distinct processes taking place in the same production facility at Custom Molds, namely the Molds Fabrication process and the Parts Production process (Exhibit 1a and b). The two processes serve different customer needs. Mold fabrication, a skill oriented and craftsman-driven process, requires flexibility and quality. Parts manufacturing, on the other hand, involves a more standardized process that competes on delivery and low cost. The margin for parts is also much smaller. In the mold fabrication process, the time needed to receive the ordered materials for each fabrication is usually 3-4 weeks. Only after the materials are received does the plant master scheduler review the workload of the assigned master machinist and schedule the mold for fabrication. The idle time between these two steps in the process significantly affects the lead time for delivery of custom-fabricated molds. The fabrication of a mold takes two to four weeks, depending on the amount of work the machinist already has scheduled,

Bush and Hitler - Parallel Lives :: Politics Political

Bush and Hitler - Parallel Lives The 70th anniversary wasn't noticed in the United States, and was barely reported in the corporate media. But the Germans remembered well that fateful day seventy years ago - February 27, 1933. They commemorated the anniversary by joining in demonstrations for peace that mobilized citizens all across the world. It started when the government, in the midst of a worldwide economic crisis, received reports of an imminent terrorist attack. A foreign ideologue had launched feeble attacks on a few famous buildings, but the media largely ignored his relatively small efforts. The intelligence services knew, however, that the odds were he would eventually succeed. (Historians are still arguing whether or not rogue elements in the intelligence service helped the terrorist; the most recent research implies they did not.) But the warnings of investigators were ignored at the highest levels, in part because the government was distracted; the man who claimed to be the nation's leader had not been elected by a majority vote and the majority of citizens claimed he had no right to the powers he coveted. He was a simpleton, some said, a cartoon character of a man who saw things in black-and-white terms and didn't have the intellect to understand the subtleties of running a nation in a complex and internationalist world. His coarse use of language - reflecting his political roots in a southernmost state - and his simplistic and often-inflammatory nationalistic rhetoric offended the aristocrats, foreign leaders, and the well-educated elite in the government and media. And, as a young man, he'd joined a secret society with an occult-sounding name and bizarre initiation rituals that involved skulls and human bones. Nonetheless, he knew the terrorist was going to strike (although he didn't know where or when), and he had already considered his response. When an aide brought him word that the nation's most prestigious building was ablaze, he verified it was the terrorist who had struck and then rushed to the scene and called a press conference. "You are now witnessing the beginning of a great epoch in history," he proclaimed, standing in front of the burned-out building, surrounded by national media. "This fire," he said, his voice trembling with emotion, "is the beginning." He used the occasion - "a sign from God," he called it - to declare an all-out war on terrorism and its ideological sponsors, a people, he said, who traced their origins to the Middle East and found motivation for their evil deeds in their religion.

Essay --

Conflicts in IT Industry due to ethical issues There is a thin line between right and wrong in the way technology is used today. There are many ethical issues arising by using technology in the business of IT. These issues can be classified as personal issues and organizational level issues. Privacy, private information security, web tracking etc are some of the personal issues and protecting intellectual property like software rights is organisational level issue. These issues tend to create conflicts in the IT industry which are intern responsible for down fall of an IT Organization. The different ways to minimise these issues are to be reviewed and have to utilize them optimally. Introduction: New trends in IT are extremely advancing and intellectually stimulating, on other hand privacy issues like private data protection, web tracking, violating software authenticity etc are ethical issues which are invading privacy of an individual and also of an organisation which in turn responsible for poor performance. Ethics in Information technology is part of many issues which result in conflicts. First these issues should be addressed by gaining attention of the superior and decision making people in the organisation by explaining the challenges these issues pose and understand potential threats, discover issues associated with use of IT and plan, design, evaluate and implement the anticipation of ethical issues with organisation’s values. In big multinationals and large organisations there are senior managers with committed terms to make sure the ethical standards are clearly defined and are in practice. These terms are directed by business and ethical attributes fixed by the organisation; these are incorporated by organisation’s ... ...hical issues. Responsibilities of a manager are to act as a role model in the ethical behaviour, reassure their employees to talk about their concerns and issues. Encourage and promote to follow the code of ethics, support to take part in ethical awareness programmes, listen and react equally to all the individuals’ concerns and provide additional aid if required to address the issues. The top leaders must take necessary steps to advise full, accurate, and timely ethical compliance, they should never overlook any unethical behaviour even if it is a suspected one, should not mislead by misrepresenting facts in any manner. Top management must report any violations in intellectual properties usage, software agreements, client confidentiality etc. They should also ensure that there are fair numbers of procedures to raise a concern or question ethical issues by employees. Essay -- Conflicts in IT Industry due to ethical issues There is a thin line between right and wrong in the way technology is used today. There are many ethical issues arising by using technology in the business of IT. These issues can be classified as personal issues and organizational level issues. Privacy, private information security, web tracking etc are some of the personal issues and protecting intellectual property like software rights is organisational level issue. These issues tend to create conflicts in the IT industry which are intern responsible for down fall of an IT Organization. The different ways to minimise these issues are to be reviewed and have to utilize them optimally. Introduction: New trends in IT are extremely advancing and intellectually stimulating, on other hand privacy issues like private data protection, web tracking, violating software authenticity etc are ethical issues which are invading privacy of an individual and also of an organisation which in turn responsible for poor performance. Ethics in Information technology is part of many issues which result in conflicts. First these issues should be addressed by gaining attention of the superior and decision making people in the organisation by explaining the challenges these issues pose and understand potential threats, discover issues associated with use of IT and plan, design, evaluate and implement the anticipation of ethical issues with organisation’s values. In big multinationals and large organisations there are senior managers with committed terms to make sure the ethical standards are clearly defined and are in practice. These terms are directed by business and ethical attributes fixed by the organisation; these are incorporated by organisation’s ... ...hical issues. Responsibilities of a manager are to act as a role model in the ethical behaviour, reassure their employees to talk about their concerns and issues. Encourage and promote to follow the code of ethics, support to take part in ethical awareness programmes, listen and react equally to all the individuals’ concerns and provide additional aid if required to address the issues. The top leaders must take necessary steps to advise full, accurate, and timely ethical compliance, they should never overlook any unethical behaviour even if it is a suspected one, should not mislead by misrepresenting facts in any manner. Top management must report any violations in intellectual properties usage, software agreements, client confidentiality etc. They should also ensure that there are fair numbers of procedures to raise a concern or question ethical issues by employees.

English Revolution :: European Europe History

English Revolution The history of the English Revolution from 1649 to 1660 can be briefly told. Cromwell's shooting of the Levellers at Burford made a restoration of monarchy and lords ultimately inevitable, for the breach of big bourgeoisie and gentry with the popular forces meant that their government could only be maintained either by an army (which in the long ran proved crushingly expensive as well as difficult to control) or by a compromise with the surviving representatives of the old order. But first there were still tasks to be done. (1) There was the conquest of Ireland, the expropriation of its landowners and peasantry - the first big triumph of English imperialism and the first big defeat of English democracy. For the petty bourgeoisie of the Army, despite the warnings of many of the Leveller leaders, allowed themselves to be distracted from establishing their own liberties in England and, deluded by religious slogans, to destroy those of the Irish. Many of them set up as landed proprietors in Ireland. (The Leveller revolt of 1649 had been occasioned by the refusal of many of the rank and file to leave for Ireland, for that meant violating their Engagement of 1647 not to divide until the liberties of England were secure.) (2) There was the conquest of Scotland, necessary to prevent a restoration of the old order thence; Scotland was opened up to English traders by political union. (3) A forward commercial policy was undertaken with the Navigation Act of 1651, the basis of England's commercial prosperity in the next century. This aimed at winning the carrying trade of Europe for English ships, and at excluding all rivals from trade with England's colonies. It led to a war with the Dutch, who had monopolised the carrying trade of the world in the first half of the seventeenth century. For in that period the royal policy had frustrated all attempts of the bourgeoisie to throw the resources of England into an effective struggle for this trade. In this war, thanks to Blake's fleet and the economic strength the Republican Government was able to mobilise, England was victorious. (4) An imperialist policy needed the strong Navy which Charles had failed to build up, and under Blake the Commonwealth began to rule the waves to some purpose; war in alliance with France against Spain brought Jamaica and Dunkirk to England. (5) The

Slavery in The United States Essay -- American History

The term slave is defined as a person held in servitude as the chattel of another, or one that is completely subservient to a dominating influence. The most well known cases of slavery occurred during the settling of the United States of America. From 1619 until July 1st 1928 slavery was allowed within our country. The first slave in America were brought over in the slave trade to help with work on plantations and in return they received housing and food. However these slaves weren’t the first. The first slaves were actually enslaved, because of war, destruction, debt and crime as stated in the Locke and Slavery packet. Slavery was a practice that was very common, but was obviously an immoral idea. After many years of persecution people began to come to their senses and stick up for the ...

In school suspensions, out of school suspensions and expulsions Essay

Expulsions and suspensions refer to the disciplinary sanctions and dispensations that are imposed and rendered to students who have committed behavioral misconduct while at school. Expulsion refers to the permanent removal of a student from the schooling system. Expulsion comes following the commission of certain offenses that are deemed extraordinarily serious. In the case of such an expulsion, the law provides that such a student may not be absorbed within any other schooling system (Skiba, Eaton, Sotoo, 2004). According to the federal education law on District schools, an expelled student is never allowed to be ploughed back to any school. Schools are therefore supposed to adhere to strict guidelines and regulations for students that are under expulsion. Suspension on the other hand while in or even out of school refers to a partial and short lived detachment of a student from the normal schedule of the school. This may either be for some three days, some ten days or a period that could be longer than this. An indefinite suspension by a school principle demands that a student is rendered with all the laid down protections as he/she was under expulsion. The federal law provides that disabled students be given a different treatment which provides them a greater capacity of protection towards their discipline while at school. Consequently, the district is supposed to evaluate whether students under expulsion could be subject to special needs in order to provide them with the most optimal state of justice while under this regulatory penalty (http://idea. gseis. cla. edu/publications/suspension/images/suspension. pdf). According to the federal law, principals are given the mandate to expel students that may posses dangerous weapon(s), controlled medication, alcohol or illegal drugs and making any assault to the school employee(s). Also, students may be expelled or suspended when under the conviction or charge of felony. Expulsion or suspension consequently calls for a hearing which in this case may be either formal or informal. The informal hearing is that which comes immediately after the occurrence of the offense. Informal hearing may only remedy a suspension. However, a formal hearing is that which occurs before the expulsion of a student. A formal hearing requires a full notification of the student as well as his/her guardian or a parent on matters such as the place of the hearing, reasons, time and location. Temporary suspension may also come along in the event the principal has the believe that a certain student is of threat to the school employees, property or even to his/her fellow students (http://www. yh. com/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetails. aspx? p=114&np=99&id=2239). The law also provides that the student be dispensed with certain legal rights on matters of expulsions and hearings. This may include notice of the charges that should be written. In this context, the student is under the legal obligation of been provided with an explanation that is written explaining the exact parameters of the trouble confining him/her to expulsion or suspension. The principal should also provide a hearing notice that should be written. This should include date of this hearing, place and time. The student is also under the right of bringing a representative such as an advocate or a lawyer. He/she is also under the legal right of bringing evidence or witnesses as a supplementary to the case (http://www. clcm. org/student_suspension. htm). Both expulsion and suspension are deemed good models to reinstate a child’s behavior and bring control in the normal running of the school.

Sports Participation and Academic Success

Sports Participation and Academic Success Kurtis Arnold Grand Valley State University As an increasingly relevant part of society, sports seem to find a way into many parts of our everyday lives from the global stage to our own individual experiences and feelings towards them. Not only are sports and athletic competition used for the purpose of entertaining, but the core values of athletic competition are reflected also in the mainstream cultural values in society (Snyder & Spreitzer, 1974).Some of these values include striving for excellence, fair play, sportsmanship, hard work, and commitment to a goal, and all are applauded in virtually every area in society outside of sports. Another interesting point to be made about athletics in society is that those who seem to excel in an area of athletics, and participate competitively in sports, seem to be held to higher status than those who are not viewed to be athletic.This trend can occur as early as middle school (Eder & Kinney, 1995), and often continues through high school (Zentner & Parr, 1968), college (Finkenberg & Moode, 1996), and even beyond college in professional sports as many dream of one day becoming a professional athlete (Stiles, Gibbons, Sebben, & Wiley, 1999). Much has been written about the relationship of sports and society in a broader sense, but little has been discovered through about the role of athletics as it relates to academic outcomes for adolescents.Even less is known about the specific benefits of athletic participation that may exist for various students of different racial backgrounds. What is currently assumed in the literature is that participation in sports benefit adolescents academically in a number of important ways. First, it seems that sports participation enhances students feeling of connectedness to one’s school. Secondly, sports participation seems to promote its own intrinsic value on students.That is, students who are able to find structured activities within sc hool settings that capture their attention will be more likely to assimilate to the philosophy of schooling (Jordan, 1999) Participation in sports may also foster an extrinsic motivation for students to do well in their academic studies so that they may stay eligible to participate in athletics. Although the literature illustrates some of the reasons participation in sports may facilitate higher academic achievement, the question still remains.Does sports participation in fact have a positive effect on academics? This may be an easy enough question to ask, but the difficulties in answering this question seem to be extensive. Many past studies have sought to answer this question by conducting regression analyses of cross-sectional data sets collected from students throughout the country in order to determine if sports participation is correlated with higher academic outcomes.It seems from a review of the literature that no one has been able to conduct an experimental study which test s the effects of sports participation verses non-participation on some form of academic outcome. The difficulty in conducting a truly experimental study of the relationship of sports participation with academic outcomes comes from a number of different problems that come with the design of such a study. One such difficulty is the voluntary nature of sports participation.Sports participation occurs on a voluntary basis in which student athletes choose whether or not to participate in sports. Because of this, it becomes difficult to design a study in absence of self-selection biases among participants (Jordan, 1999). Another difficulty in designing an experiment testing sports participations effects on academic outcomes is the vast number of participants that would be needed to participate in the experiment. The benefit of using data from national longitudinal surveys is the vast amount of data that can be obtained in a relatively simple and inexpensive fashion.Also, in the analysis o f this data, researchers are able to statistically control for a number of variables such as socioeconomic status, risk factors, and parental education level that may contaminate the effects of sports participation on academic outcomes. In contrast, an experimental study would have to offset these variables through random selection, and random assignment to conditions. Both of these processes require a large population in order to truly eliminate these confounding variables. It is for these reasons, among others, that research n the topic of sports participation and academic outcomes remains in its early stages of development, and tend to rely heavily on the analysis of data. Although the research on the relationship between athletics and academic outcomes remain in its early stages, current research has made important contributions to our understanding of how participation in sports may have an impact on academic outcomes. One such interesting finding from the research is that in g eneral, an extremely few number of students participate in organized sports (Jordan, 1999).According to the National Educational Longitudinal Study conducted in 1988 (NELS: 88) only about 21% of students participated in teams sports, and 15% of students were involve in individual sports when students who participated in both team and individual sports were included. This finding suggests that whatever impact sports participation may have on students’ academic outcomes, very few students have the opportunity to receive these benefits. Jordan (1999) also found that participation in sports did have a positive relationship with students GPA, self-concept, academic preparedness, and standardized test scores.Although the relationship between sports participation and the academic improvement in these areas may be small, the relationships remain both positive and consistent for students across gender, and racial lines. It is also noted that these types of improvements may not be limi ted only to sports participation, but may also be expanded to other school related extracurricular activities as well (Jordan, 1999). Another study, also analyzing data from the NELS: 88 surveys, found similar effects of sports participation on academic outcomes.According to Broh (2002) student participation in athletics does help to facilitate success in the classroom. This facilitation of increased success may be for a number of reasons, and Broh attempts to explain the findings in this study according to three different theoretical models. The first, and most popular of these theoretical models is the developmental model. For a number of years it has been the belief of researchers, educators, and the public that involvement in athletics helps to socialize students in ways that promote academic success.While participating in athletics, students learn important skills such as a strong work ethic, self-discipline, respect for authority, and perseverance which can all be used for aca demic success as well (Miracle & Rees, 1995). Also, repeated success in athletics through the learning of a new skill, and also in winning a competition helps students to develop a higher level of self-esteem, and confidence which can be carried over into academics. In Broh’s (2002) study, the developmental model accounted for one third of sports participations effects on academic outcome.Sports participation does in fact seem to help to improve students’ self-esteem, locus of control, and time spent on homework. It is assumed that these habits eventually translate into better academic outcomes. Another model used by Broh (2002) to explain why sports participation may be linked to academic outcome is the leading-crowd theory. For many years the developmental theory dominated popular beliefs of the relationship between sports participation and academic outcomes.So much in fact that little attempt was given to make an alternative argument for it. Recently however, the le ading-crowd theory has offered some challenge to the developmental theory. According to the leading-crowd theory, participation in sports offers a higher social status to those who participate and facilitates a membership into the â€Å"leading-crowd. † Consisting of the most popular students in high school, this leading-crowd is disproportionately comprised of college oriented, high achieving students (Rehberg & Schafer, 1968).Although the argument may be indirect, there is some evidence that suggests that high school athletes are among the students with the highest status in high schools (Zentner & Parr, 1968), and they also seem to be part of a college oriented peer group (Wells & Picou, 1980). In Broh’s (2002) study, only a small effect was found between being in a high status, college oriented peer group and higher academic outcomes. This may be the case because students do not gain as much from being a part of a high status, college oriented group of peers as the y do from the social connections made by participation in sports.The third model used by Broh (2002) was the social capital theory. The social capital theory is the idea that people have the ability to accrue benefits through membership in various social networks. According to Coleman (1988), the family is the greatest source of social capital for students. Students whose parents are well educated, and spend a significant amount of time interacting with their children, often tend to have higher educational outcomes than those who do not. Sports may also serve as a way for students to have greater amounts of interaction with highly educated adults.Because high school sports are often coached by administrators, teachers, or highly respected members of the community, an increased amount of interaction with these authority figures may in fact help to encourage athletes to not only be successful on the field, but also in the classroom (Portes, 2000). In Broh’s (2002) study, there was some evidence that a social capital exchange may be taking place among students and the adults they interact with in their athletic activities.It seems from this study that social capital had an effect on student’s grades, but did not have an effect on standardized test scores. What is important to note is that when each of the theoretical models were analyzed individually in Broh’s (2002) study, the results indicated only small, if any, effects on academic outcomes. The best results of analysis occurred when all three models (developmental theory, leading-crowd theory, and social capital theory) were analyzed together.Even when all three models were analyzed, there is still a great deal of variance left unexplained when it comes to the effects of sports participation on academic outcomes. This has been consistent with much of the literature involved with sports participation and academic outcomes (Broh, 2002). Other research in the area of sports participation foc uses on the types of people who participate in sports. As previously described, research in the area of sports participation has mostly come from cross-sectional data analysis.This has made it difficult to determine a causal order between sports participation and academic outcomes. Although sports participation may in fact be the reason for higher academic outcomes, it could also be the case that higher achieving, disciplined, determined, and goal oriented youth are the ones choosing to participate in sports (Spreitzer, 1994). It is for this reason that some researchers have sought to discover more about the types of people who participate in sports.According to a study conducted by Videon (2002) participation is athletic activities may be associated with a student’s socioeconomic status, siblings, family structure, year in school, attendance at a private school, size of school, region of the country, and whether or not the school was located in an urban area. After analyzing data collected from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (ADD Health), it was discovered that a number of the variables previously mentioned could be used to predict whether or not a student would participate in athletics.Variables contributing to the influencing of students towards sports participation may be referred to as socialization into sport. One of the major factors contributing to the socialization into sport has been found to be parental influence. Often times, a child’s parent, or parents are the first to expose their child to athletics and their encouragement to participate strongly influences a student’s decision to start playing sports, and continue to play them throughout their schooling (Videon, 2002). Another key factor in predicting which students will play sports and continue to play them is a student’s socioeconomic background.It is a known fact that participating in sports often comes with its expenses. Although some school s may offer the use of equipment for some of the sports offered, often times this does not include all of the equipment needed to play the sport. At a minimum, most parents will have to purchase cleats, special gloves, bats, and numerous other types of equipment in order for their child to play any given sport. Along with the expense of equipment, most schools have a â€Å"pay to play† policy for sports in order to subsidize their lacking in the sports budget.It is for these reasons that those students who participate in sports also tend to come from a higher socioeconomic background (Videon, 2002). Another import thing to note from research is that sports participation tends to be much lower for girls than it is boys, especially among African American students (Videon 2002, Jordan 1999, Zentner & Parr 1968). Although the passing of title IX has encouraged more female participation in sports, over thirty years later the number of girls participating in sports is still far les s than the number of boys.This especially true in suberban, and rural areas where the number of girls participating in sports is only about three for every five. These numbers are compared to those of urban schools where the number of girls participating is three for every four (Videon, 2002). It may be the case that because of lower participation rates among girls that fewer benefits of athletic participation are being experianced by girls. This may or may not be the case. Some research suggests that the effects of sports participation among boys on academic outcomes may be stronger for boys than it is for girls (Snyder & Spreitzer 1974, Videon 2002).There are a number of explanations for boys benefitting more from athletic participation. One such explanation is that by being involved in a sport, boys will be less likely to skip class in order to avoid not being allowed to play. Also, boys are more likely to respond to the high expectations of coaches in order to stay eligible to p lay (Videon, 2002). These relationships may not be showing up as strongly for girls, because on average girls have higher academic outcomes than boys, and skip class less often regardless of whether or not they participate in sports (Jacobs, 2009).Although from the research conducted by Videon (2002) indicates that some of the reason for athletes having higher academic outcomes may be contributed to other factors (student’s socioeconomic status, siblings, family structure, size of school, region of the country, and whether or not the school was located in an urban area), the net result of the analysis still showed that some of the varience can be explained by the sports participation itself.In this study (Videon, 2002), in Brohs study (2002), and in Jordan (1999), none were able to show that sports participation could explain more than about nine percent of the variance for any type of academic outcome. In all three, however, the results seemed to be consistant and positive. In spite of the small amounts of varience explained, it still seems that sports participation could be a contributing factor for positive academic outcomes.What is important to remember when making a judgment on the variance explained by sports participation on academic outcomes is that there are innumerable variables that may contribute to a student’s academic outcome. It is difficult to narrow down an explanation for academic outcomes to only a few variables that explain a great deal of the variance. So, when we see that sports participation can only explain about three to five percent of the variance for various factors contributing to academic outcomes this is in fact a considerable amount.Although the findings of these studies were able to find significant positive effects of sports participation on academic outcomes, these findings do not seem to be representative of the public’s perception. It has long been the belief of the public that sports participation has strong influences on academic outcomes. Various studies have investigated public perceptions of sports participation and its relationship to academics and found that it is strongly believed by the public that athletics and academics are strongly related (Goidel & Hamilton, 2006; Fairweather, 1988; Finkenberg & Moode, 1996).Regardless of these beliefs, there has yet to be a study that shows a strong relationship between athletics and academic outcomes that is representative of the public’s perceptions. It is unknown as to why the public so strongly believes in this relationship, but the fact still remains that the effect of athletics on academics remains too small to make an argument for encouraging students to participate in sports in order to achieve higher academic outcomes.Instead, encouragement for students to participate in sports should be done on the basis of improving student’s health and wellness, and should not be used as an alternative to proven methods for improving academic outcomes among students. Works Cited Broh, B. A. (2002). Linking Extracurricular Programming to Academic Achievement: Who Benefits and Why. Sociology of Education, 69-95. Eder, D. , & Kinney, D. A. (1995). The effect of middle school extracurricular activities on adolescents' popularity and peer status.Youth and Society, 298-324. Fairweather, J. S. (1988). Reputational Quality of Academic Programs: The Institutional Halo. Research in Higher Education, 345-355. Finkenberg, M. E. , ; Moode, F. M. 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